Character

07.11.2016

Snezhana Ivanova

Altruism is the natural state of a person who has discovered his natural generosity and desire to be useful to others.

What is altruism? Every person intuitively understands this definition. We have all heard about people who, having managed to give up the possession of many material goods, devoted their lives to serving others. A person who has chosen altruism as his main lifestyle usually takes responsibility for what is happening and sincerely wants to help those around him. He already ceases to reason based on personal gain, as well as forgets about individual aspirations. True selflessness is born only in an open and caring heart.

Altruism is the desire of a person to live for the well-being of others. The term altruism was introduced in the 18th century by the philosopher François Xavier Comte. He argued that only altruism makes a person stronger, elevates him above circumstances.

Theories of altruism

When talking about theories of altruism, one should take into account the fact that each of them is based on a different approach to life. All theories in a certain way reveal an inextricable connection with each other.

Evolutionary theory

Based on the concept of gradual moral growth of a person. According to this theory, a person gets the opportunity to grow and develop spiritually only in a situation where his inner nature is involved and revealed in selfless service to others. Evolutionary theory states that the more educated people become, the more real benefits they can bring to society. A cultured person has every chance to achieve moral enlightenment and transformation of the soul.

Social exchange theory

This theory suggests that every person, when planning to perform a particular action, first mentally analyzes his own advantages. The theory of social exchange consists in accepting mutual comfortable conditions of existence: by helping one’s neighbor, a person has reason to hope that one day he will not be left without attention and participation.

Social norms theory

This theory assumes that a person acting selflessly has no right to expect a response to his kindness because society would not approve of such behavior. The theory of social norms teaches to act according to conscience, based only on ethical and moral beliefs.

Types of altruism

Based on the definition of altruism, we can identify its main types. Types of altruism are aimed at identifying the components of selfless service in different life circumstances.

It lies in the unconscious need of every parent to take care of their child. Father and mother are often forced to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the future happiness and well-being of the baby. If their love were not selfless, we could not talk about altruism. Parental love is not limited by anything: it does not judge, does not seek its own benefit, and does not force one to take the position of a “debtor.” Many people take this type of altruism for granted, and therefore do not consider it something unusual or out of the ordinary.

Moral altruism

Here we are talking about such highly moral actions that change a person’s consciousness: they awaken in him gratitude, openness, desire to be useful, not dependent on one’s own mood. Moral ideals are strongly associated with social attitudes and service to people. This type of selfless help is based on social beliefs. It is a social institution that sometimes dictates to an individual how he should live, where to direct his individual efforts.

Empathic altruism

This type of noble manifestation of the best qualities of a person’s character is based on the spiritual need to be understood and heard. Only those who know how listen and support in difficult times, can claim to be called the best friend and noble comrade. This type of holistic dedication to another person allows the soul to truly open up and achieve complete mutual understanding with near and dear people.

Examples of altruism

Here it would be reasonable to give significant characteristics of altruism, examples of moral actions of an individual that make it possible to determine the truth of the good intentions of a person striving to do good.

Gratuitousness is the main example of altruism. A true altruist, giving care and warmth to those around him, never thinks about what result this action will have for him personally. Such a person is ready to selflessly share his thoughts, aspirations, mood, and opportunities with those around him. Material goods are, as a rule, of little importance to him. Selfless dedication makes him recognizable in the eyes of society. An altruist never demands anything in return. He is ready to selflessly help those in need and listen to the desires of other people. At the same time, such a person, as a rule, remembers himself and his own needs last. He is often bypassed when it comes to promotions, whether it comes to money or gratitude.

Sacrifice

Another example is renunciation of personal benefits. An altruist gets used to sacrificing his interests, giving up his own desires for the sake of the happiness and well-being of loved ones. Sometimes it seems that he himself does not need anything. Sacrifice is formed in the character of a person who has made altruism an integral part of his life. Sacrifice manifests itself in everything and is especially strong in relationships with others. An altruist thinks first about others, and then about his own personality. However, the turn “about yourself” may not come at all: you can always find someone in need of help and consolation. Sacrifice gradually becomes a habit for those who live in the interests of their children, parents, and work colleagues. A person who has freedom of choice consciously refuses to live for himself and directs his attention to the needs of his immediate environment.

Responsibility

An altruistic mood always involves acceptance full responsibility for your actions and actions. It is impossible to imagine an altruist as selfish, not realizing why he does all his good intentions. Responsibility arises when a person realizes that he can really help someone. This example demonstrates how altruism changes personality.

Mental satisfaction

A person who has cultivated an altruistic principle in himself, as a rule, begins to experience significant spiritual uplift. This is an example of how beneficial it is to develop an inclination to serve others. Having achieved a state of mental satisfaction, he gets the opportunity to remain satisfied with life, perform pious deeds, and fully control his actions. A person feels happiness when he has the opportunity to share joy.

Thus, altruism is the natural state of a person who has discovered his natural generosity and desire to be useful to others.

Last update: 06/19/2015

What makes people risk their health and well-being to help other people? Why do people spend their time, energy and money trying to make the lives of others better, knowing that they will not gain any benefit from it? The desire to selflessly care for others implies altruism. Altruists do things simply out of a desire to help, rather than out of a sense of duty or commitment.

Our daily life is full of good deeds - sometimes someone will kindly hold your door, sometimes passers-by will give alms to someone in need.

The news often talks about more serious manifestations of altruism: people who dive into an icy river to save a drowning stranger, or generous benefactors who donate huge sums to various foundations. We are very familiar with the phenomenon of altruism, but social psychologists still don't know for sure why it exists. What inspires us to do such things? What motivates the characters in news stories to risk their own lives to save a complete stranger?

Altruism is one aspect of prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior includes any action that benefits other people regardless of our motives or possible personal benefit. Remember, however, that only pure altruism involves true selflessness. It is also worth remembering that although all altruistic acts are prosocial in nature, prosocial behavior is not always altruistic.

For example, we help others for various reasons - out of guilt, obligation, duty, or even out of a desire for a future reward.

Reasons for the existence of altruism

Psychologists have proposed a number of different explanations for why altruism exists.

Biological reasons

Kin selection: We may be more attracted to those with whom we are related, as this makes it more likely that our relationships will persist. This is the only way we can pass on our genes to future generations.

Neurological causes

Altruism affects the internal reward centers in the brain. Neuroscientists have discovered that when a person selflessly does something good, the pleasure centers are activated.

Social norms

The rules, norms and expectations that exist in society can also influence a person's behavior. For example, the principle of reciprocity, in which we feel obligated to help others if they have already done something for us. If your friend lent you money for lunch a few weeks ago, you'll probably feel obligated to do the same for him - even when he asks you for a much larger sum.

Cognitive reasons

Although the definition of altruism implies a lack of reward, the phenomenon itself represents cognitive stimuli that are not obvious to us. For example, we may alleviate the suffering of others because good deeds confirm our view of ourselves as empathetic people.

There are other cognitive reasons:

• Empathy. Researchers including Batson et al. (1981) suggest that people are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior when they empathize with a person who is in distress. Batson suggests that both empathy and altruism are innate traits. Other researchers have found that children develop altruism along with empathy.
• Dealing with Negative Feelings. Other experts have suggested that displaying altruism helps combat the negative feelings associated with seeing a person in distress. In fact, when we see another person in trouble, we experience negative emotions - we are upset, we feel uncomfortable - so by helping a person, we help ourselves first of all.

Comparing theories

The main question that still plagues psychologists is: is there really “pure” altruism? Do we perform useful actions for truly altruistic reasons, or are we still always looking for hidden benefits for ourselves?

Batson suggested that although people often do good for selfish reasons, true altruism exists. Cialdini and others, on the other hand, have suggested that compassion for others often arises from a person's desire to help himself.

Altruism(lat. Alter- other, others) - a concept that conceptualizes activity associated with selfless concern for the well-being of others; correlates with the concept of selflessness - that is, with the sacrifice of one’s benefits in favor of the good of another person, other people, or in general - for the sake of the common good. In some senses it can be seen as the opposite of selfishness. In psychology, it is sometimes considered synonymous with or part of prosocial behavior.

The concept of altruism was introduced by the French philosopher and founder of sociology Auguste Comte. It characterizes a person’s selfless motives, which entail actions for the benefit of other people. According to Comte, the principle of altruism states: “Live for others.” According to O. Comte, altruism is the opposite, antonymous to egoism, and implies such behavior and activity of a person by which he brings more benefits to other people than requires them to make any costs.

Opposition to this understanding of altruism is Charlie L. Hardy, Mark van Vugt, David Miller and David Kelly, who in their studies showed that altruism and altruistic behavior are not associated with direct benefits, or with combinations of various benefits, but ultimately, in the long term in the long term create more benefits than were spent on performing altruistic actions.

According to Jonathon Seglow, altruism is a voluntary, free act of a subject, which, however, cannot be carried out without the committed altruistic action losing its altruistic nature.

Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov, in his work Justification of Good, substantiates altruism through pity and considers it a natural manifestation of human nature (unity), while its opposite (selfishness, alienation) is a vice. The general rule of altruism, according to V. S. Solovyov, can be correlated with the categorical imperative of I. Kant: do to others as you want them to do to you. According to V. S. Solovyov, altruism is understood as “moral solidarity with other human beings” .

“No matter how selfish a person may seem, there are clearly certain laws inherent in his nature that force him to be interested in the fate of others and consider their happiness necessary for himself, although he himself receives nothing from this, except for the pleasure of seeing this happiness.”

Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759

Altruism in society can also be beneficial, as it leads to an increase in reputation. Another benefit of altruism may be self-promotion, called the “potlatch effect” by Israeli zoologist Amotz Zahavi.

As noted by Dr. Psy. sciences, prof. N.V. Grishina, “altruism is an independent motive that differs from other motives based on personal gain; it is based on love and selfless concern for others, the ability to make free sacrifices for the sake of the group, the need to give and a sense of responsibility.”

Main types, forms and practices of altruism

Moral and normative altruism

The moral, ethical side of altruism can be understood through the moral imperative of I. Kant. Interiorized by a person, this or that understanding of morality can become such an intrapersonal formation as conscience, based on which, and not from the desire for certain benefits, a person will act. Thus, moral altruism is about acting in accordance with one's own conscience.

Another form, or one understanding of moral altruism, is its conceptualization within the framework of ideas about justice or justice, the social institutions of which are widespread in Western societies. Within the framework of ideas about justice, a person is seen as often ready to disinterestedly act for the truth and its triumph in the world of social relationships, as well as against various kinds of injustices.

Acting in compliance with obligations (that a person makes to himself or another) and expectations (that other people have regarding a person) are sometimes considered to be a certain degree of altruism. At the same time, such actions can often turn out to be actions of calculation.

Altruism from sympathy and empathy

Altruism can be associated with various kinds of social experiences, in particular with sympathy, sympathy for others, mercy and benevolence. Altruists, whose goodwill extends beyond family, neighborly, friendly relationships, as well as relationships with acquaintances, are also called philanthropists, and their activities are called philanthropy.

In addition to goodwill and compassion, altruistic actions are often done out of affection (for something/someone) or general gratitude for life.

Rational altruism

Rational altruism is a balancing (as well as an attempt to comprehend it) between one’s interests and the interests of another person and other people.

There are several areas of rationalization of altruism:

• Altruism as wisdom (prudence) (through moral right (the feeling of “right”) and good deeds, rational egoism can be justified (Christoph Loomer).
• Altruism as mutual (reciprocal) exchange. The rationality of mutual exchange is obvious: action based on the norms of reciprocity (fairness, honesty) is focused on an accurate accounting of the efforts made and their compensation. Rather, it is about preventing altruists from being used by egoists, so that the process of exchange can continue. Reciprocity is a means to prevent exploitation.
• Altruism as a generalized exchange. Generalized exchange systems are characterized by the fact that they are based on efforts made unilaterally without direct compensation. Anyone can be the beneficiary (of an altruistic action) or the one who performs the action. The rationality of generalized exchange is that everyone who needs help can receive it, not directly from someone, but indirectly; Relationships of trust between people play an important role here.
• Rational balance of one's own and others' interests(e.g. Howard Margolis' rational/social decision theory).
• Pareto altruism. According to the Italian economist and sociologist Pareto, Vilfredo, his famous distribution, “80% of effects give rise to 20% of causes,” altruistic actions are possible and do not require making any sacrifices in benefits. There are many actions (including selfish ones), the commission of which does not require any sacrifice from anyone and does not bring any harm to anyone. Such actions can be considered altruistic acts.
• Utilitarian understanding altruism. An altruistic act is seen as based on maximizing some common good, including by recruiting other people to do so. Example: a person has a certain amount of money and he wants to donate it for the development of a certain territory. He finds some organization working with this territory and donates money to it, hoping that it will be spent in the right way. At the same time, as follows from the example, such a utilitarian understanding of altruism can lead to bias and the pursuit of certain self-interests.

Social psychology of altruism and altruistic behavior

With the development of empirical psychological research, such vague concepts as altruism and usefulness are gradually being replaced by the more common term “prosocial behavior.”

There are sex differences in altruistic behavior, with women tending to exhibit more long-term prosocial behavior (e.g., caring for loved ones). For a man, unique “feats” (for example, in a fire) are more likely, in which specific social norms are often violated.

There are also studies from the field of evolutionary psychology that show that humans survive through cooperation and normal reciprocity. As Herbert Simon put it, prosocial behavior has an advantage in a situation of natural selection/evolution, and in a sense, altruism can be seen as a genetic program in humans.

According to socio-psychological studies of altruistic behavior, a person’s personal responsibility plays an important role in it. Making decisions requires taking responsibility for those decisions. If a decision is made by a group of people, then responsibility for it is distributed among the group members, reducing the personal responsibility of each of them. As Dmitry Alekseevich Leontiev writes, referring to research by social psychologists described in the book by Lee Ross and Richard Nisbett: “if something happened, if you felt bad, you need help, and people are walking around without stopping, you can’t just call for help, without turning to anyone. Choose any person, look at him and contact him personally, and the likelihood that someone will come to your aid will increase several times.”

Left-wing political doctrines, which aim at a society built on mutual assistance instead of competition, can appeal to altruism as a behavioral attitude. Altruism, observed in animals and primitive human societies, is cited as arguments for leftist politics in Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid as a Factor of Evolution and Peter Singer's Darwinian Left ( A Darwinian Left).

Other varieties

In the general concept of altruism, separate subconcepts are distinguished that describe some specific types of altruism. For example:

• Kin selection
• Reciprocal altruism
• Altruism in animals
• Self-sacrifice
• Effective altruism

Literature

• Solovyov V.S. Justification of good // Solovyov V.S. Op. in 2 vols. T. 1. M.: Mysl, 1988. P. 152-169
• Schopenhauer A. Two main problems of morality // Schopenhauer A. Free will and morality. M.: Republic, 1992. pp. 220-237
• Efroimson V.P. Pedigree of altruism (Ethics from the perspective of human evolutionary genetics) // Genius and Ethics. M.: Russkiy Mir, 1998

Altruism is a complex and contradictory socio-psychological phenomenon. Its manifestations are spontaneous and associated with stressful and life-threatening factors. Therefore, this phenomenon is observed by psychologists, but little has been studied experimentally.

Examples of selfless behavior indicate that altruists are highly moral individuals. Natural and they replaced it with a moral obligation to put the interests of another person or society above their own.

Altruism as a moral attitude

Altruism is moral behavior, the willingness of an individual to act in the interests of another person/people, neglecting his own needs, desires, life, and a set of value orientations built into the personality structure.

Examples of altruism are known as cases of heroism. People die saving their children, loved ones or their native land.

Altruism as a socio-psychological attitude to act in the interests of others is formed in the process of education and socialization.

In childhood, selfishness is developmental and natural. Children are taught to share toys, give the only candy to another child, “give up” mom to dad, other children, and so on.

For a mature, developed personality, altruism is a moral need and necessity.

Altruistic behavior implies the following personality traits and qualities:

• mercy,
• unselfishness,
• self-denial
• compassion,
• caring,
• friendliness,
• empathy,
• love for people.

A person, cultivating these qualities in himself,...

Types of altruism

The attitude to act in the interests of other people manifests itself in the form of:

1. Love. Such love is active, sacrificial, selfless and non-judgmental. Parental love is the most altruistic.
2. Sympathy. A person, seeing the problems of another, empathizes and improves his situation through volunteer or charitable assistance.
3. Social norms. Some types of help and care are accepted in society or in a particular group of people as norms of behavior (carrying a grandmother across the road, giving up a seat to a pregnant woman in transport, helping a colleague with work).
4. Mentoring. A person unselfishly shares experience and knowledge, teaches, educates, accompanies.
5. Heroism and self-sacrifice.

In some philosophies, ideologies, worldviews and world religions, altruism is considered as a moral principle, proper behavior. In particular, the idea of ​​self-sacrifice for the sake of others is one of the dominant ones in Christianity. The call to love your neighbor as yourself contains a requirement to place love for people above selfishness (although love for yourself is not excluded at all).

What mechanism forces a person to suppress selfishness, and sometimes even the strongest instinct of self-preservation for the sake of highly moral principles?

To answer this question, we need to understand the connection between altruism and selfishness.

Altruism and egoism

The concept of “altruism” was introduced by Auguste Comte as the antipode of the concept of “egoism”. O. Comte defined altruism as the ability to resist egoism.

Selfishness is a life orientation and focus of activity on satisfying personal interests and needs, even at the cost of the well-being of others.

Selfishness is a derivative of the instinct of self-preservation, the need to survive and adapt. Ethically, egoism is determined by the value of life. Anyone who does not value life or is not afraid of losing it takes risks and neglects himself.

In its normal, reasonable manifestation, egoism is necessary in order to form an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bone's own “I”, to develop, establish and realize oneself as an individual.

The extreme degree of manifestation of selfishness is perceived by others as a person’s fixation on himself, alienation, cynicism, cruelty, etc. People perceive extremely dangerous altruism as recklessness, because a person can die while doing a good deed.

Some scientists consider altruism as a variant of egoism, in which the benefit from an activity is hidden or unconscious, but is always present.

Altruism and egoism are interrelated phenomena.

First, there is a relationship between the subjective feeling of happiness and the tendency to act altruistically. The higher people’s tendency to act in the interests of others and to satisfy other people’s needs, the more often they are satisfied with themselves and their lives. Helping others, doing good deeds, selfless deeds, a person feels extraordinary joy. By the way, many people like giving gifts more than receiving them.

Secondly, the relationship between satisfying one’s own desires and social needs and personal happiness is also positive: the more personal goals a person achieves, the happier he becomes (if he achieves what he really wanted). It is the satisfaction of social needs for love, care, recognition, respect, belonging, friendship, family, and self-actualization that brings happiness.

A person needs not only to receive, but also to give benefits. For the psychological well-being of an individual, other people are needed.

Outside of society, a person cannot be happy. Social activities and life would be meaningless without the opportunity to share them with another person.

Selflessness is also characteristic of animals. Modern science views altruistic behavior in animals as a necessity designed to ensure the survival of the entire species. Perhaps people's ability to self-sacrifice has the same reason. A living organism is capable of sacrificing itself in order for life to continue in future generations.

Egoism is love for oneself, altruism is love for another person.

This ability characterizes selfless love and is the key to long-term happy relationships and continuation of life.

a principle of behavior based on unselfishly bringing benefit to another person. A. is characteristic of the ethics of Buddhism and especially Christianity (“Love your neighbor as yourself”).

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ALTRUISM

fr. altnnsme from Latin alter-other) is a moral principle that prescribes a person to suppress his own egoism, selfless service to his “neighbor,” and willingness to sacrifice his own interest in favor of the interests of others. The term was introduced into moral theory by the French. philosopher and sociologist Comte, who laid this principle as the basis of his ethical system. Comte believed that the moral improvement of society could be achieved by cultivating in people a special social feeling -A., which should counteract their selfishness. Similar ideas were developed earlier by Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, and Smith. The bourgeois understanding of philosophy is based on the idea that people by nature are egoists and that this “natural” tendency can be overcome by a person’s moral education. Thus, the opposition of people’s interests, characteristic of a bourgeois society, is proposed to be overcome not by restructuring social relations, but on the basis of self-improvement of the individual (Self-education). In practice, charity in a bourgeois society can only manifest itself as private charity (Philanthropy), as the provision of selfless services to one’s “neighbor” on a personal level, contrary to the laws of economic activity, which is necessarily self-interested. Under socialism, the principle of A. remains fundamentally important. in the field of personal relationships (providing each other with various private services, assistance, etc.). In the sphere of socially useful activity, in work, as V.I. Lenin showed, people serve not their “neighbors”, but “distant ones,” that is, the whole society as a whole (vol. 39, p. 22), in other words, they do not just provide services to individual people, but work for the benefit of the entire people. It is not the separation and opposition of one’s own and others’ interests, but their ultimate unity, conditioned by the common goals of all workers, that underlies the principles of communist morality (Collectivism, Man and Society).

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